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WorkGeorg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Lectures on the Philosophy of History

World history as the widening consciousness of freedom, driven by reason's cunning use of a Caesar or a Napoleon — the popular, and now most contested, of Hegel's lecture courses.

by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel908 passages held

  • German, the original language
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Original title
Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Geschichte
First published
(published posthumously)
Original language
German

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Overview

For most of the nineteenth century this was the most widely read thing Hegel wrote, the one book of his that reached people who would never open the Logic — and it is now the most fiercely attacked, for the same directness that once won it that audience. Hegel never published it. He lectured on world history five times in Berlin between 1822 and 1831, and his friend Eduard Gans built the first edition in 1837 out of Hegel's own notes and transcripts taken down by those in the room; Hegel's son Karl re-edited it in 1840. The argument is a single sweeping claim: history is the progress of the consciousness of freedom, advancing from ancient empires in which one man is free, through Greece and Rome where some are free, to a modern world in which freedom is in principle everyone's. Driving it is what Hegel names the cunning of reason — the way history's rational end is reached through the ambition of men who served only themselves, an Alexander, a Caesar, a Napoleon, spent and discarded once their work is done. Marx kept the shape of this history and changed its engine, putting economic forces where Hegel had put spirit. But the pages that rank the world's peoples, and the passages that place Africa outside history altogether, have moved to the centre of how the book is now read. It reaches many readers first as the great Eurocentric text to be argued with.

Key concepts

What is 'the progress of the consciousness of freedom'?

It is the book's governing thesis: history is the story of humanity coming to know that it is free. Hegel charts three stages — ancient despotisms where one man is free, the classical world where some are free, and the modern world where freedom is in principle everyone's. Freedom is not a fixed possession but something spirit gradually recognizes as its own nature, and history is the record of that recognition widening.

What is the cunning of reason?

The cunning of reason is Hegel's account of how history reaches a rational goal through people who never aimed at it. Ambitious individuals pursue their own passions and interests, and reason quietly harnesses that energy to advance freedom, discarding the individuals once their work is done. It explains how meaning can run through history without any single actor intending it, and without pretending the actors were virtuous.

What is a world-historical individual?

A world-historical individual is a figure like Alexander, Caesar or Napoleon whose personal ambition happens to coincide with the next step history must take. Such a person reads the need of the age and acts on it, changing the world while seeking only his own ends. Hegel says they are spent and cast aside once their historical task is complete — instruments of reason rather than its beneficiaries.

How did Marx change Hegel's philosophy of history?

Marx kept the overall shape — history as a directional, stage-by-stage development driven by contradiction — but replaced its engine. Where Hegel put spirit and the consciousness of freedom, Marx put material and economic forces, class conflict and the mode of production. History still moves toward a goal, but through the struggle over who controls the means of life rather than through spirit coming to know itself.

Why is the book now read as a Eurocentric text?

Alongside its theory of freedom, the lectures rank the world's civilizations and, in notorious passages, place Africa outside history altogether, treating Europe as history's culmination. Later readers have moved these pages to the centre, so the book now reaches many as the classic example of Eurocentric philosophy of history — a work whose grand claim about human freedom is entangled with the exclusion of most of humanity from it.

Themes of the book

What this book returns to, gathered into themes and ordered by how much of the text each one occupies.

History as the widening of freedom

Does history have a direction, or is it just one thing after another? Hegel reads the whole of it as the slow growth of humanity's consciousness that it is free.

The book advances a single sweeping claim: world history is the progress of the consciousness of freedom. It moves from ancient empires in which one man is free, through Greece and Rome where some are free, to a modern world in which freedom is in principle everyone's. Freedom here is not a natural birthright already possessed but something spirit must come to know itself as, working it out through the rise and fall of whole civilizations. This made the lectures the one book of Hegel's that reached readers who would never open the Logic, and the directness that won that audience is now what draws the fiercest attack.

  • history
  • freedom
  • spirit
  • consciousness
  • subjectivity
  • reason
  • rationality
  • state
  • sovereignty

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The cunning of reason

If history moves toward a rational end, who is doing the moving? Hegel's unsettling answer: men who served only their own ambition, used by reason and discarded once their work is done.

Hegel names the engine of his history the cunning of reason. The rational end of freedom is reached not by saints aiming at it but through the passions of men who wanted only their own greatness — an Alexander, a Caesar, a Napoleon — whom he calls world-historical individuals. Reason lets their ambition do its work and then spends and discards them. This turns private vice into public advance without excusing the vice, and it separates the meaning of history from the intentions of its actors. Marx kept the shape of this history and changed its engine, putting economic forces where Hegel had put spirit.

  • reason
  • history
  • dialectic
  • negation
  • contradiction
  • authority
  • rationality
  • spirit

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The ranking of peoples, argued with

What happens to a grand theory of human freedom when its author places whole peoples outside history? For many readers this is now the first thing the book is about.

The same lectures that trace freedom's growth also rank the world's peoples and, in notorious passages, place Africa outside history altogether. These pages have moved to the centre of how the book is now read: it reaches many readers first as the great Eurocentric text to be argued with. Taking the book seriously today means holding both at once — the power of its idea that freedom has a history, and the prejudice that idea is entangled with. The doors here are for that argument, not for endorsement: what in the account survives its own author's blind spots, and what does not.

  • history
  • culture
  • historiography
  • abstraction
  • rationality
  • spirit
  • freedom
  • nature

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Within this work

passages held
908
distinct concepts
1,252
by passages held, corpus-wide
#69

What this book thinks together

The wheel takes this book’s leading concepts and shows how often they come up together. The wider the band between two, the more of its passages speak of both. Among them, most often together: “freedom” and “philosophy of history”.
Concept co-occurrence, strongest first 8 concepts, joined by 26 pairings. 82 pairings reach beyond these concepts and are not drawn.
ConceptPaired conceptShared passages
freedomphilosophy of history26
freedomstate25
freedomspirit22
philosophy of historyspirit20
freedomsubjectivity19
freedomreligion18
religionstate16
religionspirit14
religionsubjectivity13
lawstate11
freedomlaw10
philosophy of historyreligion10
philosophy of historystate9
statesubjectivity9
lawstate formation7
spiritsubjectivity7
lawreligion6
freedomstate formation5
lawsubjectivity4
philosophy of historysubjectivity4
religionstate formation4
lawphilosophy of history3
philosophy of historystate formation3
lawspirit1
spiritstate1
state formationsubjectivity1

Works held

The author's work in order, this book marked in place. Your-language title first, the original beneath it where the two differ; side chips show which full texts are held.

  1. 1801 The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's System of Philosophy (Differenz des Fichteschen und Schellingschen Systems der Philosophie)

    The book that opened Hegel's Jena years and first put his name before the public — as Schelling's ally, a role his essays for their Critical Journal continued.

     DE
  2. 1802 Faith and Knowledge (Glauben und Wissen)

    Written at the height of the alliance with Schelling: the longest of Hegel's pieces for their journal, and his fullest early reckoning with Kant.

     DE
  3. 1802 How the Ordinary Human Understanding Takes Philosophy (Wie der gemeine Menschenverstand die Philosophie nehme)

    Of Hegel's reviews for the Critical Journal, the most openly mocking: the journal's programme of severity turned on a single named Kantian.

     DE
  4. 1802 On the Essence of Philosophical Criticism (Über das Wesen der philosophischen Kritik überhaupt)

    Unsigned, and claimed for both editors ever since: the programme at the head of the journal Hegel and Schelling ran in 1802–03, which Hegel's reviews in its later issues put into practice.

     DE
  5. 1802 On the Scientific Ways of Treating Natural Law (Über die wissenschaftlichen Behandlungsarten des Naturrechts)

    Spread across the Critical Journal's last two issues: Hegel's longest published early writing on law and the state, composed while he was still an unsalaried lecturer at Jena.

     DE
  6. 1802 Relationship of Skepticism to Philosophy (Verhältnis des Skeptizismus zur Philosophie)

    Between the Krug review and Faith and Knowledge in the Critical Journal's run, the essay in which Hegel first says what doubt does for philosophy.

     DE
  7. 1807 Phenomenology of Spirit (Die Phänomenologie des Geistes)

    Written as Napoleon's army entered Jena and published in 1807, the book Hegel meant as the doorway into his system — and the one many readers still enter him through.

     DE
  8. 1812 Science of Logic (Wissenschaft der Logik)

    The larger of Hegel's two versions of the Logic, written away from any university while he ran a Nuremberg school; the metaphysical core the rest of the system rests on.

     DE
  9. 1817 Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Basic Outline (Enzyklopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften im Grundrisse)

    The frame for Hegel's other books: its first part condenses the Science of Logic, and the Philosophy of Right expands one section of its third part. Hegel taught from it and rewrote it twice.

     DEEN
  10. 1821 Elements of the Philosophy of Right (Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts)

    The last book Hegel published in his lifetime apart from new editions of the Encyclopaedia: the textbook of his Berlin law lectures, and the one of his books most argued over by political readers.

     DE
  11. 1831 On the English Reform Bill (Über die englische Reformbill)

    Some three decades after his first, unpublished pamphlets on Württemberg and on the German constitution, Hegel's last venture into the politics of the day.

     DE
  12. 1833 Lectures on the History of Philosophy (Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der Philosophie)

    Among the posthumous lecture books, the course Hegel carried through nearly his whole teaching life, and the one that closes on his thanks to the students who had followed it.

     DE
  13. 1835 The Philosophy of Fine Art (Vorlesungen über die Ästhetik)

    Not a book Hegel wrote but Berlin lectures assembled by a student after his death — the most influential philosophy of art of the nineteenth century, and a contested reconstruction of it.

     EN
  14. 1835 Who Thinks Abstractly? (Wer denkt abstrakt?)

    Hegel in the manner of a magazine essayist: short, comic and aimed at the general reader, though he never published it himself.

     DE
  15. 1837 Lectures on the Philosophy of History (Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Geschichte) you are here DE
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