WorkSøren Kierkegaard

Philosophical Fragments

A thought experiment that asks what a teacher would have to be if the truth could not be found within us.

by Søren Kierkegaard221 passages held

  • Danish, the original language
Original title
Philosophiske Smuler
First published
(aged 31)
Original language
Danish

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Overview

Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, the German dramatist and critic, argued in 1777 that facts of history, which are never more than probable, cannot prove the truths of religion, and said he could not get across the ditch between the two. Johannes Climacus, the pseudonym of this short book of June 1844, puts a version of Lessing's problem on the title page: can a person's eternal happiness be built on something that happened in history? He answers with a thought experiment. Begin with Socrates, for whom a teacher is only a midwife: the truth is already inside the learner and needs drawing out, so the teacher is incidental and the moment of learning leaves nothing behind. Now suppose the opposite, that the learner lacks the truth and even the capacity to receive it. The teacher must then supply both, which only a god could do, and must come in a form the learner can bear, as a king who loves a poor girl must come to her as an equal rather than in his crown. A single moment in time becomes decisive, faith takes the place of understanding, and a believer centuries later stands no further from that moment than someone who was there. The book waits until its last paragraph to call this hypothesis Christianity. The pseudonym borrows the name of John Climacus, a seventh-century monk who wrote of a ladder of ascent to God. The Smuler of the Danish title means crumbs or scraps. No second edition appeared in his lifetime; his brother Peter Christian Kierkegaard published one in 1865. The second part it promised became the Concluding Unscientific Postscript, several times the length of this one.

Key concepts

Who is Johannes Climacus?

The pseudonym under which Kierkegaard published this short book in June 1844, and who returns in the far longer Postscript. The name borrows from John Climacus, a seventh-century monk who wrote of a ladder of ascent to God. Climacus reasons about Christianity with great care while standing outside it, which gives his thought experiments their cool, almost mathematical tone.

What is Lessing's ditch?

Gotthold Ephraim Lessing's image, from 1777, for the gap between historical facts and religious truth. History yields only probabilities, and Lessing said he could not get across from those to the certainties religion claims. Climacus puts a version of the problem on his title page and builds the whole book as an answer to it.

What does Socratic mean in Philosophical Fragments?

The view that the truth is already inside the learner, so that a teacher is only a midwife who helps draw it out. On this view the teacher is incidental and the moment of learning leaves nothing behind. Climacus sets it up as the baseline and then asks what follows if it is false.

What is the moment?

The point in time that becomes decisive once the Socratic view is abandoned. If the learner must receive the truth from outside, the instant of receiving it is no longer an occasion to be forgotten but the turning point of a life. Climacus uses the term to mark the difference between recollecting a truth and being given one.

What is a follower at second hand?

Climacus's term for a believer born long after the events faith concerns. His claim is that such a follower stands no further from them than an eyewitness did, since seeing the teacher could never prove who he was: both must believe, and history gives neither a head start.

Themes of the book

What this book returns to, gathered into themes and ordered by how much of the text each one occupies.

The Teacher Who Must Give the Condition

If the truth is already in us, a teacher is only a midwife. Johannes Climacus asks what a teacher would have to be if the learner lacked the truth and even the capacity to receive it.

For Socrates the teacher is incidental: truth is drawn out of the learner by questioning, and the moment of learning leaves nothing behind. Climacus supposes the opposite and follows it strictly. A learner without the truth and without the condition for receiving it needs a teacher who supplies both, which only a god could do, and who must come in a form the learner can bear, as a king who loves a poor girl must come to her as an equal rather than in his crown. Not until the last paragraph does the book call its hypothesis Christianity.

  • teaching
  • recollection
  • truth
  • understanding
  • knowledge
  • divine love
  • incarnation
  • equality
  • love
  • revelation
  • divine revelation
  • sin
  • discipleship
  • paradox

Eternal Happiness Built on a Fact of History

Lessing said that historical facts, never more than probable, cannot prove the truths of religion. Climacus puts the question on his title page: can a person's eternal happiness rest on something that happened in history?

In the Socratic picture no moment in time matters; on the hypothesis, a single moment becomes decisive, and faith rather than understanding is how a person stands toward it. That has a surprising consequence for history. Evidence can never get past probability, so the eyewitness who saw the teacher has no advantage over the believer centuries later: both must believe, and neither can be argued into it. A believer in any generation stands no further from that moment than someone who was there. The second part the book promised grew into the far longer Concluding Unscientific Postscript.

  • faith
  • history
  • historical knowledge
  • testimony
  • becoming
  • necessity
  • possibility
  • eternity
  • reason
  • offense
  • existence
  • religious knowledge
  • freedom

Within this work

passages held
221
distinct concepts
283
by passages held, corpus-wide
#327

What this book thinks together

The wheel takes this book’s leading concepts and shows how often they come up together. The wider the band between two, the more of its passages speak of both. Among them, most often together: “faith” and “paradox”.
Concept co-occurrence, strongest first 8 concepts, joined by 20 pairings. 89 pairings reach beyond these concepts and are not drawn.
ConceptPaired conceptShared passages
faithparadox13
faithhistory12
faithhistorical knowledge10
faithknowledge8
becomingfaith7
faithunderstanding6
becominghistory5
becomingknowledge4
becominghistorical knowledge3
historyknowledge3
paradoxunderstanding3
historyparadox2
knowledgeparadox2
paradoxteaching2
teachingunderstanding2
becomingunderstanding1
faithteaching1
historical knowledgeparadox1
historical knowledgeunderstanding1
knowledgeteaching1

Works held

The author's work in order, this book marked in place. Your-language title first, the original beneath it where the two differ; side chips show which full texts are held.

  1. 1841 The Concept of Irony (Om Begrebet Ironi)

    Defended in September 1841 — after he had returned Regine Olsen's engagement ring, before the final break with her — this academic dissertation is the last book he signed himself before the pseudonymous books began with Either/Or.

    DA
  2. 1843 Either/Or (Enten – Eller)

    The first of the pseudonymous books: an invented editor presenting two invented authors, whose argument Stages on Life's Way would reopen two years later.

    DA
  3. 1843 Fear and Trembling (Frygt og Bæven)

    Twin of Repetition, published the same October day: both books take up a man who must give up what he loves, one through Abraham and Isaac, the other through an engagement broken off.

    DA
  4. 1843 Repetition (Gjentagelsen)

    A short fiction, subtitled a venture in experimenting psychology: one man's account of a journey back to Berlin, and another man's letters about a love he has fled.

    DA
  5. 1844 Philosophical Fragments (Philosophiske Smuler) you are here DA
  6. 1844 The Concept of Anxiety (Begrebet Angest)

    Philosophical Fragments had appeared four days earlier under another pseudonym; this is its companion, and it takes a point of church doctrine, inherited sin, and treats it as a problem in psychology.

    DA
  7. 1845 Stages on Life's Way (Stadier paa Livets Vei)

    Characters from Either/Or and Repetition return here, and the argument moves past the ethical into the religious.

    DA
  8. 1846 Concluding Unscientific Postscript to "Philosophical Fragments" (Afsluttende uvidenskabelig Efterskrift)

    He meant it to close his authorship and later called it the authorship's turning point; after it, the openly religious writing takes over.

    DA
  9. 1846 Two Ages: The Age of Revolution and the Present Age. A Literary Review (En literair Anmeldelse)

    After the Postscript's farewell, the first book he published was, in form, a review of a contemporary novel, and he signed it with his own name.

    DA
  10. 1847 Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits (Opbyggelige Taler i forskjellig Aand)

    Begun in the spring of 1846, while the satirical weekly The Corsair was still caricaturing him, it opens the run of signed religious books that fills the years after the Postscript.

    DA
  11. 1847 Works of Love (Kjerlighedens Gjerninger)

    Two series of deliberations, a form he set apart from the discourse because it is meant to unsettle a reader rather than console one, published six months after the Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits.

    DA
  12. 1848 Christian Discourses (Christelige Taler)

    The first book of 1848, the year he later called the richest of his authorship and the year he wrote The Sickness unto Death.

    DA
  13. 1849 The Sickness unto Death (Sygdommen til Døden)

    The first of two books signed by Anti-Climacus, with Practice in Christianity following in 1850; Kierkegaard later ranked the pair among the most important things he wrote.

    DA
  14. 1849 Two Ethical-Religious Essays (Tvende ethisk-religieuse Smaa-Afhandlinger)

    A slim pamphlet, the only book under the initials H.H., salvaged from a planned cycle of ethical-religious essays that he gave up in the spring of 1849.

    DA
  15. 1850 Practice in Christianity (Indøvelse i Christendom)

    Kierkegaard judged it the truest of all his books; with The Sickness unto Death it makes up the pair signed by Anti-Climacus.

    DA
  16. 1851 For Self-Examination (Til Selvprøvelse, Samtiden anbefalet)

    The last new title he published before three years of public silence, and the book whose planned second series became Judge for Yourselves!

    DA
  17. 1855 The Moment (Øieblikket Nr. 1–10)

    The open, signed form of the criticism that Practice in Christianity had made under a pseudonym, carried in a periodical of his own through the last months of his life.

    DA
  18. 1876 Judge for Yourselves! (Dømmer selv! Til Selvprøvelse Samtiden anbefalet)

    Of the books on this shelf, the only one he finished and then chose not to publish; it stands between the signed discourses of 1851 and the open attack on the church of 1854–55.

    DA
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