WorkSøren Kierkegaard

Works of Love

Christian deliberations on the command to love one's neighbour, arguing that love is secure only because it is a duty.

by Søren Kierkegaard884 passages held

  • Danish, the original language
Original title
Kjerlighedens Gjerninger
First published
(aged 34)
Original language
Danish

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Overview

In 1939 Theodor W. Adorno, the German philosopher then in exile in New York, published an essay arguing that the love this book describes is no love at all: by commanding that every neighbour be loved alike, it looks away from actual people and their needs, and leaves the world exactly as it is. The book he was answering had appeared in Copenhagen on 29 September 1847 under Søren Kierkegaard's own name, subtitled as Christian deliberations in the form of discourses. Its starting point is the commandment to love one's neighbour as oneself, and its argument turns on the word shall. The loves people choose, for a beloved or a friend, are preferences; however tender, a preference is partly self-love, and it can turn into jealousy or hate. Love that is a duty cannot change in that way, because it depends on the command and not on how the other person makes us feel; the command does not confine love but protects it from despair. The neighbour is whoever is nearest, the enemy included, and to see the neighbour is to look past every distinction the world draws between people. Near the end Kierkegaard puts the argument to a hard test, the love owed to the dead, who can give nothing back and so show whether a love was ever free of the wish for repayment. Adorno's charge is still debated; many Kierkegaard scholars have disputed his reading.

Key concepts

Why does so much depend on the word shall?

Because the commandment says you shall love your neighbour, and the book reads that shall as love's protection rather than its constraint. A love that depends on how the other makes us feel can turn into jealousy, hate or despair; a love that depends on the command cannot change in that way.

What is preferential love?

The book's name for the loves people choose: for a beloved, for a friend, for whoever pleases them. It is not condemned, but it is exposed as partly self-love, because it depends on what the other gives back. Neighbour love is set against it as the love owed to whoever is nearest, whether they please or not.

What is a deliberation, as opposed to a discourse?

The form of this book, subtitled Christian deliberations in the form of discourses. Kierkegaard set it apart because a deliberation is meant to unsettle a reader rather than console one: an upbuilding discourse assumes someone who needs comfort, a deliberation someone who needs waking up, and presses the commandment exactly where it is uncomfortable.

Who counts as the neighbour?

Whoever is nearest, the enemy included. The neighbour is not chosen for any quality; to see the neighbour is to look past every distinction the world draws between people and find the human being who is actually there. That is why the book can say that the neighbour is, in the end, every person.

Themes of the book

What this book returns to, gathered into themes and ordered by how much of the text each one occupies.

The Love That Shall

Can love be commanded? The book's argument turns on the word shall: love that is a duty, it claims, is the only love protected against turning into jealousy, hate or despair.

The loves people choose, for a beloved or a friend, are preferences, and a preference, however tender, is partly self-love. It depends on how the other person makes us feel, so it can change: into jealousy, into hate, into despair when the beloved is lost. Love that is a duty depends on the command instead, and cannot change in that way. The command does not confine love but secures it. Kierkegaard published the book under his own name in September 1847, as deliberations meant to unsettle a reader rather than console one.

  • love
  • duty
  • self-love
  • romantic love
  • friendship
  • neighbor love
  • christian love
  • christian ethics
  • eternity
  • faith
  • self-deception
  • trust
  • hope
  • perseverance

The Neighbour, the Enemy and the Dead

Who is the neighbour a person is commanded to love? Whoever is nearest, the book answers, the enemy included, and the dead, who can give nothing back, show whether a love was ever free of the wish for repayment.

To see the neighbour is to look past every distinction the world draws between people, rank, beauty, cleverness, kinship, to the human being who is actually there. That is the source of the book's hardest demand, that the enemy is a neighbour too. Near the end Kierkegaard puts the whole argument to a test, the love owed to the dead, who cannot repay or respond, so that the love shown them reveals what a love was all along. Theodor W. Adorno's charge of 1939, that such love looks away from actual people and their needs, is still debated, and many Kierkegaard scholars dispute his reading.

  • neighbor-love
  • equality
  • humility
  • self-denial
  • forgiveness
  • reconciliation
  • reciprocity
  • moral responsibility
  • action
  • death
  • inwardness
  • sin
  • god
  • truth
  • christianity

Within this work

passages held
884
distinct concepts
706
by passages held, corpus-wide
#71

What this book thinks together

The wheel takes this book’s leading concepts and shows how often they come up together. The wider the band between two, the more of its passages speak of both. Among them, most often together: “duty” and “love”.
Concept co-occurrence, strongest first 8 concepts, joined by 26 pairings. 87 pairings reach beyond these concepts and are not drawn.
ConceptPaired conceptShared passages
dutylove41
forgivenesslove36
eternitylove32
loveself-denial26
faithlove22
christianitylove13
dutyeternity9
loveneighbor love9
neighbor loveself-denial8
christianityfaith7
christianityself-denial7
dutyneighbor love6
faithforgiveness6
eternityneighbor love5
christianityeternity4
christianityneighbor love4
faithself-denial3
forgivenessself-denial3
christianityduty2
christianityforgiveness2
dutyfaith2
eternityfaith2
eternityforgiveness2
faithneighbor love2
dutyforgiveness1
dutyself-denial1

Works held

The author's work in order, this book marked in place. Your-language title first, the original beneath it where the two differ; side chips show which full texts are held.

  1. 1841 The Concept of Irony (Om Begrebet Ironi)

    Defended in September 1841 — after he had returned Regine Olsen's engagement ring, before the final break with her — this academic dissertation is the last book he signed himself before the pseudonymous books began with Either/Or.

    DA
  2. 1843 Either/Or (Enten – Eller)

    The first of the pseudonymous books: an invented editor presenting two invented authors, whose argument Stages on Life's Way would reopen two years later.

    DA
  3. 1843 Fear and Trembling (Frygt og Bæven)

    Twin of Repetition, published the same October day: both books take up a man who must give up what he loves, one through Abraham and Isaac, the other through an engagement broken off.

    DA
  4. 1843 Repetition (Gjentagelsen)

    A short fiction, subtitled a venture in experimenting psychology: one man's account of a journey back to Berlin, and another man's letters about a love he has fled.

    DA
  5. 1844 Philosophical Fragments (Philosophiske Smuler)

    Johannes Climacus signs his first book here and returns in the far longer Postscript; in its author's lifetime this short thought experiment was little read outside Denmark.

    DA
  6. 1844 The Concept of Anxiety (Begrebet Angest)

    Philosophical Fragments had appeared four days earlier under another pseudonym; this is its companion, and it takes a point of church doctrine, inherited sin, and treats it as a problem in psychology.

    DA
  7. 1845 Stages on Life's Way (Stadier paa Livets Vei)

    Characters from Either/Or and Repetition return here, and the argument moves past the ethical into the religious.

    DA
  8. 1846 Concluding Unscientific Postscript to "Philosophical Fragments" (Afsluttende uvidenskabelig Efterskrift)

    He meant it to close his authorship and later called it the authorship's turning point; after it, the openly religious writing takes over.

    DA
  9. 1846 Two Ages: The Age of Revolution and the Present Age. A Literary Review (En literair Anmeldelse)

    After the Postscript's farewell, the first book he published was, in form, a review of a contemporary novel, and he signed it with his own name.

    DA
  10. 1847 Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits (Opbyggelige Taler i forskjellig Aand)

    Begun in the spring of 1846, while the satirical weekly The Corsair was still caricaturing him, it opens the run of signed religious books that fills the years after the Postscript.

    DA
  11. 1847 Works of Love (Kjerlighedens Gjerninger) you are here DA
  12. 1848 Christian Discourses (Christelige Taler)

    The first book of 1848, the year he later called the richest of his authorship and the year he wrote The Sickness unto Death.

    DA
  13. 1849 The Sickness unto Death (Sygdommen til Døden)

    The first of two books signed by Anti-Climacus, with Practice in Christianity following in 1850; Kierkegaard later ranked the pair among the most important things he wrote.

    DA
  14. 1849 Two Ethical-Religious Essays (Tvende ethisk-religieuse Smaa-Afhandlinger)

    A slim pamphlet, the only book under the initials H.H., salvaged from a planned cycle of ethical-religious essays that he gave up in the spring of 1849.

    DA
  15. 1850 Practice in Christianity (Indøvelse i Christendom)

    Kierkegaard judged it the truest of all his books; with The Sickness unto Death it makes up the pair signed by Anti-Climacus.

    DA
  16. 1851 For Self-Examination (Til Selvprøvelse, Samtiden anbefalet)

    The last new title he published before three years of public silence, and the book whose planned second series became Judge for Yourselves!

    DA
  17. 1855 The Moment (Øieblikket Nr. 1–10)

    The open, signed form of the criticism that Practice in Christianity had made under a pseudonym, carried in a periodical of his own through the last months of his life.

    DA
  18. 1876 Judge for Yourselves! (Dømmer selv! Til Selvprøvelse Samtiden anbefalet)

    Of the books on this shelf, the only one he finished and then chose not to publish; it stands between the signed discourses of 1851 and the open attack on the church of 1854–55.

    DA
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